The Impact of Premature Financial Liberalisation on Macroeconomic and Financial Stability

Introduction Currently, liberalisation has emerged as a current trend occurring in both developed and developing countries. A country may institute financial liberalisation among its financial institutions due to various reasons. For instance, these countries aim at accelerating the growth and development of domestic financial markets and institutions to achieve efficiency in the allocation of domestic capital and ensuring equitable sharing of individual risks.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Premature Financial Liberalisation on Macroeconomic and Financial Stability specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In addition, while allowing financial liberalisation, most developing countries aimed at attracting developed countries and investors to pump capital into their economy; hence, financing higher growth coupled with investment (Bodie, Kane Marcus 2005). Insurance against aggregate shocks and reduction of consumption volatility was also another conventional view that led to countries adopting the concept of financial liberalisation. However, researchers and scholars have proved the aspects and conventional views on financial liberalisation as inappropriate elements. The latest financial and economic crisis that rocked the world in 2008 called for re-examination of the need to implement financial liberalisation. However, this aspect does not mean that financial liberalisation does not have some benefits attached to it. A number of studies carried out demonstrated that financial liberalisation could initiate growth among financial markets and organisations (Fry 1995). For instance, financial liberalisation may call for a positive effect on growth rates, due to increment in the level of interest rates. Elimination of controls on interest rates and their upwards movement can stimulate a higher level of savings. At this point, an assumption is made that higher interest rates would increas e financial intermediation. In response to financial liberalisation, economic development can be fostered due to changes in quality and the quantity of investment (Nier 2009).The aim of this paper is to discuss the impact of premature financial liberalisation on microeconomics and financial stability of an economy. Impacts on macroeconomics and financial stability Effects on rate of savings and investment One of the roles of liberalisation is to remove rigidity in the control of rates of exchange and rates of interest, compulsory allocation of credits from banks, and quantitative limitations in credit given to the private sector by banking institutions. These aspects were part of the common practices among developing countries, hence causing inefficiencies that resulted into low direct investment. Current studies and evidence established shows that high rates of interest and financial depths due to financial liberalisation does not exclusively lead to increased savings and investmen t.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In most developing countries, financial reforms due to liberalisation lead a decrement in savings. Financial reforms adopted thereafter lead to the relation of credit constraints, thus increment in the alternatives available for borrowing, hence decreasing private savings. For instance, it was noted that financial reforms due to liberalisation led to decreased rate of savings in France, though there was a reversal on the negative perception between rates of interest and savings. This was the same case with the United Kingdom, while further research revealed significant explanations on the evolution of savings. While some countries depicted a negative trend in private savings due to financial liberalisation, Chile was one of the countries where liberalisation had a positive contribution as it led to an increment in the country’s rate of growth. Inadequate financial stabilisation measures Countries should be warned against premature implementation of financial reforms due to liberalisation. This assertion means that there should be a careful evaluation of the reform to ascertain its benefits and disadvantages to the economy (Corrado Jordan 2005). Due to controversies that lie behind financial liberalisation, all countries should scrutinise a reform thoroughly before implementation, as the outcome may not be desirable. However, economists have asserted that financial liberalisation has risks attached to it, and thus it should be evaluated carefully to enjoy its benefits. For instance, excessive and rapid financial reforms are not desirable for they lead to credits that are difficult to sustain and increment of activities that lead to financial crises in an economy (Fry 1995). In the absence of relevant and adequate measures or regulations, risks obtained increase significantly, hence affecting both banking instit utions and capital markets. Close link between financial institution crisis and liberalisation is another sign of increased fragility nature of financial systems (Corrado Jordan 2005). From the survey carried out by researchers on the banking crisis that took place from 1980 to 1995, it was evident that a crisis is more likely to occur within a financially liberalised economy. The study was carried out on 53 developed and developing countries. Findings stated that in the process of initiating financial reforms due to liberalisation, domestic banks are subject or exposed to external shocks especially where the system of banking is not developed sufficiently. However, banking crisis could be due to extremely high growth especially in the countries where there are imperfections in the credit market. Effects on banks and other financial institutions In a developing country, financial liberalisation can yield negative results if not evaluated keenly before implementation for the existen ce of poor supervision of institutions and inefficient sectors accompanied with poor governance create loopholes for arbitrage and other uneconomical practices (Corrado Jordan 2005).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Impact of Premature Financial Liberalisation on Macroeconomic and Financial Stability specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Following financial liberalisation, there will be the establishment and mushrooming of banks, which tend to purchase foreign currencies at lower rates than the officially stipulated rates (Toporowski 2005).They later resell the foreign currencies to other forex exchange bureaus to make substantial returns. The short-term arbitrage activities lead to poor closing balances and financial performance, as there are restricted towards lending to the private sector. This scenario leads to the rise of systematic risk in the banking sector with some banks landing into liquidation due to f inancial distress. Various macroeconomics variables are significantly sensitive to policies and reforms connected to financial liberalisation (Toporowski 2005). They tend to depict a significant difference in their performance before and after the implementation of financial liberalisation. These variables include the real gross domestic product, foreign direct investment, and national savings. However, there may be insignificant or no effect at all on the rate of inflation and the country’s financial depth. With disregard to many controversies surrounding financial liberalisation, some researchers affirm that there are advantages behind it; for instance, it has been argued that financial liberalisation and integration helps in improving functionality of various financial systems and institutions. This aspect results into increased funds as well as their availability. In addition, when countries are allowed to trade across borders, there is a tendency to diversify and spread risks over a wide region (Helleiner Pagliari 2010). For instance, researchers note that most international capital market can channel their savings to most productive utilisation without restriction on location. Others also argue that due to financial liberalisation, accountability and transparency improve. When investors place their money in foreign companies, they tend to be cautious; therefore, placing extreme emphasis on the accountability of their funds. Companies are required to submit regular reports on the usage of funds to the investors, which leads to the reduction in the adverse selection of a country and multinationals to invest. In addition, moral hazards will be curtailed since the immoral practices will be defaulted by accountability, hence reducing liquidity problems in the market. Moreover, the authorities in charge of international capital market help to discipline formulators of economic policies who may have malicious attempts of boycotting and exploiting the do mestic capital market. With many studies carried out in relation to impacts of financial liberalisation, a majority of them have not helped in resolving a conflict that exists between those supporting financial liberalisation and those against it as a stimulator of economic growth.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Transparency and accountability Although financial liberalisation stipulates measures that ensure transparency and accountability of funds in an economy, the measures suffer shortcomings largely (Shelagh 2005). For instance, they are not a true reflection of the extent of openness of capital accounts of various countries, which could be the reason for they are based on various restrictions in relation to exchanges and foreign transactions. Measures stipulated may not be effective in capturing the required degree of stringent capital controls, hence being subject to change especially where legal restrictions are not changed. Moreover, the regulations fail to show actual integration of a financial status of an economy into the international capital market (Stiglitz Uy 1996).This move leads to the inability to stop the inflow of speculative capital as experienced by some economies such as that of China. Impact on capital flows According to neoclassic economists, capital flows due to l iberalisation result to drain of capital from some economies. For instance, rich countries have a notion that they are rich; consequently, they pump most of their capital into poor economies. They do so for the poor economies return higher capital to the investor as compared to the amount invested initially (Goonatilake Herath 2007). However, this aspect is a dangerous speculation especially when investing in a developing economy. These economies have poor structures and thus incur huge losses where investments occur blindly. Capital inflows to poor economies serve as a complement for the limited resources and savings done domestically (Goonatilake Herath 2007). However, it leads to reduction in the cost of capital, which leads to increased investment. In addition, increased funding leads to acquisition of technology in excess, and thus an improvement of the management coupled with other functions performed by an organisation. This element also results to the flow of advanced expe rtise from advanced economies (Lewis Misen 2000). Sharing of risks is a way though which specialisation propagates within a liberalised economy, which in turn fosters development and growth within a domestic financial sector and the overall economy. This scenario is the case as financial liberalisation imposes different disciplines in relation to policies regarding macroeconomics, hence stable policies. However, researchers have expressed some challenging issues in defining the relationship between capital flow due to liberalisation and growth depicted. However, without careful scrutiny, this problem can hardly be recognised, especially when one solely relies on data generated through macroeconomics (Mishkin 2001). The reason behind this assertion is that strong statements on financial liberalisation can hardly be made without reliance on micro or macroeconomics data utilised in the study. Volatility of outputs Financial liberalisation has various effects on volatility of outputs. Due to financial liberalisation, poor countries are in a position to adopt diversification in various production sectors that mostly rely on agriculture or natural resources. However, diversification tends to reduce macroeconomic volatility ultimately. Countries with such economies tend to be exposed to industry specific shocks due to specialisation gained in the advanced stages of development (Mishkin 2001). Based on comparative considerations, trade and financial integration can allow enhanced specialisation, thus leading to the problem stated above. The concept of macroeconomic volatility makes such a strong prediction on the relationship between volatility of consumption and financial integration. According to the consumer’s theory, both consumers and the entire economy are risk averse (Dick 2009, 150). However, the theory recommends that consumers should utilise financial markets in insurance against risks related to incomes to sooth the effects of fluctuations in the gr owth of incomes. This aspect is vital because ultimately, the rate of consumption is highly dependent on the growth rate of incomes. There exist various benefits in relation to sharing risks on an international platform (Goonatilake Herath 2007). For instance, some macroeconomics policies are meant to stabilise or reduce volatility arising from consumption. In addition, they can have significant benefits to the economy, however minimal they could be. Higher volatility depicted by developing countries as opposed to developed ones indicates a potentiality to reap more benefits from international arrangements concerning sharing risks (Stiglitz Uy 1996). Financial reforms concerning capital play a crucial role in curbing financial crises. However, premature financial liberalisation can cause various financial crises especially among emerging economies and young markets. While these crises attract significant attention from researchers, there is little literature to support their findi ngs. Both output and consumption volatility have been on the downwards trend recently among developing economies and emerging markets (Toporowski 2010). Impacts on consumption In relation to consumption, there exist predictions that financial liberalisation can lead to transnational movement of macroeconomics aggregates. However, the nature of shocks and specialisation determine the effect of financial integration among countries. Theoretically, the integration of a country’s financial system should lead to stronger cross movement of consumption patterns and growth among countries. However, this element should not denote a correlation between incomes and output (Lewis Misen 2000). Premature adoption of financial liberalisation can attract various reactions, which depend on whether a country is economically stable or not in terms of capital endowment. However, countries should be careful since some impacts of financial liberalisation are transitory for they are not flexible, hence not subject to change. Increased accumulation of capital due to financial liberalisation leads to an increment in the rate of consumption at all seasons, which leads to a rise in wages leading to a decrease in the rate of returns on savings. However, the first generation after pioneers do not benefit from high wages, while at the same time experience the bad effects due to a decline in the rate of savings (Fry 1995). Moreover, the effect is accompanied by an increment in the rate of consumption that can hardly be eliminated. During the first period after implementation of liberalisation, consumption keeps on the rise unless it is curbed through an increment in wage savings. If no measures are put in place to curb this menace, consumption will always remain higher than the period before financial liberalisation. This point helps to denote a key point as stipulated by the conventional view of implementing financial liberalisation measures. A country can take advantage of develop ment opportunities arising from financial liberalisation. However, this move calls for the presence of efficient and suitable infrastructure to enable right decisions towards remaining steady or moving towards financial liberalisation. Effects on foreign and domestic debts Premature financial liberalisation can lead to additional debts, hence instability of the economy. This scenario arises when enforcement of foreign and domestic debts occur concurrently, which means that enforcement of domestic debts leads to enforcement of the foreign ones. This aspect arises from the inability to discriminate; therefore, countries end up exchanging benefits accrued to enforcing domestic debts against the costs associated with acquiring and enforcing foreign debts (Itoh Lapavitsas 1999). In case entrepreneurs default on payment, the effect is on domestic debt, while its impact on consumption depends on the interrelation between foreign and domestic bonds in the entrepreneurs’ portfolios. Ultimately, this scenario leads to inequalities in the treatment of the two types of debts in favour of foreign debts (Mishkin 2001). Conclusion Impacts of financial liberalisation have remained controversial across the world for some of the issues have attracted considerable attention from many researchers and scholars. This paper has attempted to evaluate the impact of premature financial liberalisation on microeconomics and financial stability of any given economy and based on the discussion held above, premature liberalisation depicts both positive and negative impacts in both developed and developing or emerging economies. Reference List Bodie, Z, Kane, A Marcus, A 2005, Essentials of Investments, 6th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York. Corrado, C Jordan, Fundamentals of Investments-Valuation and Management, 3rd edn, McGraw-Hill, New York. Dick, N 2009, Global Financial Crisis: Foreign and Trade Policy Effects, Diane Publishing, New York. Fry, M 1995, Money, Interest and Banking in E conomic Development, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore. Goonatilake, R Herath, S 2007, ‘The volatility of the stock Market and News’, International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, vol.11, pp.53-64 Helleiner, E Pagliari, S 2010, Global Finance in Crisis: The Politics of International  Regulatory Change, Taylor Francis, New York. Itoh, M Lapavitsas, C 1999, Political Economy of Money and Finance, Macmillan, London. Lewis, M Misen, P 2000, Monetary Economics, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Mishkin, F 2001, The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets, 6th edn, Addison Wesley, Boston. Nier, E 2009, Financial Stability Frameworks and the Role of Central Banks, https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2009/wp0970.pdf Shelagh, H 2005, Modern Banking, Wiley, Chichester. Stiglitz, J Uy, M 1996, Financial Markets, Public Policy and the East Asian Miracle. Web. Toporowski, J 2005, Theories of Financial Disturbance, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. Toporowski, J 2010, Why the World Economy Needs a Financial Crash’ and Other Critical Essays on Finance and Financial Economics, Anthem Press, New York. This essay on The Impact of Premature Financial Liberalisation on Macroeconomic and Financial Stability was written and submitted by user Alec Cain to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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Resilience in children Abstract There is a great deal of research into resilience in children, whether they are housed or homeless. However, there is less research about resilience in adults, whether they are housed or homeless. Childrens well-being, which includes their resilience, is directly correlated with that of the adults in their families. Given this reality I decided to investigate if resilience reduces negative effects of homelessness in adults and in their transition after becoming housed. The information I find can be useful for those working with adults who are homeless and those making the transition from being homeless to being housed. Literature review According to the Stuart B. McKinney Act, a person is considered homeless if he or she lacks a fixed, regular, and adequate night-time residence and has a primary night time residence that is: 1) supervised publicly or privately operated shelter designed to provide temporary living accommodations; 2) an institution that provides a temporary residence for individuals intended to be institutionalized, including mental health facilities or hospitals; 3) a public or private place not designed for or ordinarily used as a regular sleeping accommodation for human beings, which includes cars and parks. This definition does not include those imprisoned or otherwise detained pursuant to an act of Congress or a state law (NCH, Fact Sheet #3). Difficult childhoods (including sexual and/or physical abuse, addiction, mental illness, and so on) may play a role in adult homelessness. More women report living with an abusive parent than men (Smith, et al, p. 5). Battered women who live in poverty are often forced to choose between abusive relationships and homelessness (NCH, Fact Sheet #3). Approximately half of all women and children experiencing homelessness are fleeing domestic violence (NCH, Fact Sheet #3). Immigrants also cite language barriers (Smith et al, page 13). Many kinds of people become homeless, leading to a diverse homeless population (Tompsett, p 86). It is important to include the services that are most important for that particular group, especially in this time of limited funds for services (Tompsett, pp 87). Even though homelessness affects people in different ways, it can have a corrosive effect on peoples self-esteem and well-being; fifty-three percent of respondents say that being homeless destroyed their self-esteem and self-confidence. Unlike gender, age, ethnicity and nationality made no difference in how people answered the questions (Smith et al, page 9). Thirty-nine percent of men and nine percent of women said that being homeless led to depression, mental health problems and anxiety (Smith, page 10). However, many women report being depressed and having a history of mental health problems prior to homelessness (Smith et al, page 10). Homelessness can damage: peoples capability through loss of skills; their inability to think about employment while worrying housing; their health becoming impaired while homeless; their resilience and self-confidence, particularly mens (Smith, et al, page 9). This emphasizes the need to activities that help people build self-esteem and the social interactions helping them release their capabilities (Smith et al, page 10). The literature I found does not explain how these activities help in this way. Whether or not people develop depression or resilience depends mostly on their feelings of powerlessness or capability and the belief that one is can plan and carry out plans to achieve their goals. In order to become resilient, they must feel they are able to do something about the situations and meet their challenges. Depression can develop when someone doubts their ability to find a successful solution (Grotberg, page 66). Feelings of powerlessness can be changed to those of capability by teaching the five basic building blocks of resilience: trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, and identity (Grotberg, page 67). What is resilience? Resilience is the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or significant sources of stress; it means bouncing back from difficult experiences (APA, p. 2). Resilience is a persons ability to rely on their own core self-belief and stability, enabling him or her to successfully resist harmful life events that would damage someone else (Smith et al, p. 3). Reactions to stress are not isolated events; they are the consequences of what has occurred before. There is a dynamic interaction of patterns of coping responses, personality characteristics, social support (Tusaie and Dyer, p. 6) Research shows that resilience is commonplace not extraordinary or exceptional. People commonly demonstrate resilience. Resilience involves behaviors, thoughts, and actions that can be learned and developed in anyone (APA, p. 2). Resilience is a dynamic process whereby individuals can show great coping skills in the face of significant adversity. It is not one-dimensional but a sort of chain reaction that leads to resilience later; that chain reaction begins when children are very young (Gorman, et al). Many professionals believe that resilience can be learned. Others debate whether or not resilient qualities are learned or part of ones genetic nature. These resilient characteristics have been referred to as protective factors defined as the positive conditions, personal and social resources that promote resiliency, protect and buffer the individual, and reduce the potential for high-risk behaviors (MHW) footnote the definition or developmental assets, defined as the positive relationships, opportunities, skills, and values that promote the positive development of all children and adolescents [http://www.soyreport.org/40developmentalAssets.php]footnote the definition(Richardson, page 309). Experts disagree about how much of resilience is genetic. People seem to differ in their inborn ability to handle lifes stresses. Resilience can be cultivated. To the degree it is learned, resilience seems to develop out of the challenge to maintain self-esteem. (Psychology Today, page 1). Resilience is a complex process that is in some ways as unpredictable as the weather. A number of negative factors may weaken resilience. Those factors include violence, physical or sexual abuse, direct exposure to alcoholism and removal from the home. The toll increases as the negative factors increase. If resilience is strength under adversity, then multiple-risk exposures (four or more) limit emotional endurance (Gorman, et al, page A53). Attitudes and characteristics of resilient people Research often focuses on limitations, negatives and the problematic. As a result, strengths may be often overlooked. Research shows that women between the ages of 35 and t3 years who had overcome homelessness and found that they had person, interpersonal and transpersonal strengths such as pride, moral principles, determination, and commitment to personal relationships citation. These strengths served to protect them from adverse health outcomes associated with being homeless. Homeless adolescents found numerous pathways to health. In particular, participants exhibited self-confidence and considered themselves to be the primary resource for health promotion (Rew and Horner, p. 90). Research also shows that the motivation for engaging in health promotive behaviors stems more from positive factors or strengths, such as the desire for growth and human potential than from negative factors (Rew and Horner, p. 91). Resilient people harness inner strengths and rebound more quickly from a setback or challenge. Those who are less resilient may dwell on problems, feel victimized, become overwhelmed and turn to unhealthy coping mechanisms, such as substance abuse (Mayo Clinic, p. 1). Those who lived with relationship trauma can develop resilient qualities associated with resilience. They may develop strategies for managing chaos that can become assets if they can work through their downside. Those who have thrived despite the odds can be inventive when dealing with problems. Their ability to think outside the box think differently, unconventionally or from a new perspective, be creative and smart-thinking footnote the definition when solving complex family situations shows creativity and originality, which are assets in all areas of life. Humor is another asset of those coming from problematic backgrounds. Humor is used for very specific reasons, including managing the unmanageable, lightening the familys emotional load by easing tension, and finding alternative ways to bond and feel good (Dayton, pages 99-100). Steve At the heart of resilience is a belief in oneself and a belief in something larger than oneself. Resilient people dont let adversity define them, move towards a goal beyond themselves and transcend pain and grief by perceiving bad times as a temporary state of affairs (Psychology Today, p. 1). Resilient people see their problems as a temporary state of affairs rather than a permanent state; tend not to globalize; have the capacity to see beyond themselves into a different kind of life; believe that life will work out (optimistic) (Dayton, page 101). Resilience helps us understand that adversity can help develop strength (Dayton, page 103). There are many ways to build resilience, including: 1) reach out to make connections, create a support system, find someone who believes in you wholeheartedly, find people who can help you (Psychology Today, page; APA, page 4;Mayo Clinic); 2) keep things in perspective (APA, age 4; Mayo Clinic); avoid seeing crises as insurmountable problems; 3) accept that change is a part of living; move toward your goals; take decisive actions; look for opportunities for self-discovery; nurture a positive view of yourself; maintain a hopeful outlook (APA, page 4; Mayo Clinic); take care of yourself (APA, page 4). 4) Reframe and reinterpret past events to find the strengths one had all along (Psychology Today; Dayton, page 107). 5) Be self-aware; gain skills and tools for staying safe; help others; teach parenting skills, when possible (Gorman, et al). 6) Learn from your experiences (Mayo Clinic, p. ; Collingwood, p. 2). 7) Dont retreat from life; ask penetrating questions and answer them honestly. 8) Take a while to think through the problem to find the best solution and then tell yourself to take the first step (Dayton, p. 108; Collingwood, p. 2). 9) Develop inner resources and strengthen inner self; work through unresolved issues from the past; maintain good boundaries; stay away from victim thinking (Dayton, pp. 108-109). Activities help people build their self-esteem and the social interactions that help them release their capabilities. These activities include creative writing, art and crafts, music, and walking. Doing so enabled them to relax and feel more positive about life, as well as developing transferable skills. These activities also reached those who were most vulnerable and marginalized, including those misusing substances and those most severely mentally ill (Smith et al, page 10). Steve The most commonly reported sources of informal support include family, friends, as well as faith and community organizations (Smith et al, page 13). The amount of contact homeless people have varies depending on their circumstances. Services are often identified as a key source of support and are used in a variety of ways. Services that participants consider the most important include affordable housing, day centers and shelters, learning and training opportunities, translation services, detox and substance abuse programs, and other health services (medical and mental health) (Smith et al, pages 13, 15, 18). People experiencing homelessness use services in different ways (Smith et al, page 21). Some need practical help for brief times while others likely need those services for much longer. The best services are those that are inclusive, open access and treat their service uses with respect and empathy (Smith et al, page 21). Employment and entry to the labor market are currently thought of as the main way out of poverty and welfare dependency. Developing job skills that improve their chances of employment is important but should happen at the expense of activities that build self-esteem and social interactions (Smith et al, page 21). Developing resilience is a personal lifelong journey, one worth making.

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Human trafficking is not a new phenomenon. It has historically taken different forms but always new dimensions. Human trafficking is a complex phenomenon that is multi-faceted and which involves several stakeholders both at the institutional as well as commercial level. Research reveals that up to 900 000 people are trafficked every year around the globe (Adepoju 2005). Human trafficking is rated as third in terms of the biggest profit earners (at about $7 billion) after drugs and armaments for international organised crime. It is described as a global business that is demand driven because of the huge market for commercial sex and cheap labour that are tackled by policy frameworks that are either insufficient or unexercised. The number of trained people to prevent this vice is also insufficient. Traffickers understand that while they can make profit only once on drugs, the same person can be sold overt and over again earning them infinite profit. Studies also show that the primary victims of human trafficking are women and children (Adepoju et al. , 2008). According to Hagen (2004), these victims are primarily sold into forced marriage, sexual slavery or various forms of debt bondage and forced labour. Adepoju (2005) explains that poverty is the key driving force for the supply of humans for trafficking. Other forces include poor education standards as well as lack of employment that make people vulnerable to traffickers (Adepoju 2005). The human trafficking industry which is responding to the escalating demands for cheap and malleable labour as well as an increasingly expanding sex industry that has been globalised assures a ready supply to meet that demand (Altman 2003). According to statistics, developing and third world countries such as those in Asia and Africa are more prone to human trafficking and in fact report highest incidences of this vice (Coday 2003). The rate of human trafficking is said to be escalating in Africa as years pass by. South, west and Central Africa report the highest incidences of human trafficking. War torn areas in other regions such as eastern Africa are also reported to experience higher rates of child trafficking (Sita 2003). Factors that Contribute to Human Trafficking in Africa Poverty has been cited as the primary cause of human trafficking in the world. In Africa, it is worse as most people live in poverty. Poverty as a result of unemployment, poor education and war increases the vulnerability of population to the deceptions of human traffickers. According to (Fitzgibbon (2003), human traffickers target poor people with promises of better job opportunities and employment in the places they bare going to. Destitute families who are not able to provide support to their children are in fact most vulnerable to traffickers’ persuasion to sell them or hire them out (Mooney, Knox & Schacht 2008). Girls, who are perceived to be the weaker gender in Africa are the most susceptible to commercial exploitation. Because of the desperation and desire to end their situations, poor people are easily convinced by traffickers either through deception of better jobs or convincing of families to sell out their children for a certain amount of money (Fitzgibbon 2003). Poverty contributes largest to multinational trafficking as vulnerable persons are promised of greater things in European and Asian (particularly the Middle East) countries. Gender discrimination is also widespread in Africa and is one of the factors contributing to the high rates of human trafficking in the region. It denies women of their rights making them defenceless against such vices (Truong 2006). Gender discrimination is also characterised by attitudes that perceive women and girls to be inferior and weak encouraging their objectification (Masika 2002). This objectification and tolerance of violence against women as a result of gender discrimination support the existence and continued trafficking practices that deliver women and girls into in atrocious working conditions (Truong 2006) Africa also happens to be one of the most affected regions by the effects of HIV AIDS and in particular orphanage. AIDS has been identified as one of the factors that contribute to the escalating human trafficking in Africa mainly because of family disintegration it causes through death (Kristof 2000). Millions of African children have been orphaned by AIDS and left to live in poverty, fending for themselves with no one to look after them. Such children are very vulnerable to traffickers who deceive them with promises of better lives. In their innocence and desperation, orphaned children end up being victims of human trafficking trade (Beeks & Amir 2006). Child prostitution and normal prostitution as a result of poverty and orphanage is also prevalent in Africa (O’Connell & Sanchez 1996) Such women are more prone to emotional intimidation which makes them vulnerable and easily moved into the hands of traffickers (Kristof 2000). Such individuals are often trafficked for sexual exploitation abroad. Armed conflicts are also very common in most African countries. In addition to destroying livelihoods, armed conflicts destroy national economies and bring about mass population movements. The heightened insecurity during wars makes women and children more vulnerable and promotes dramatic survival tactics including prostitution (Martens et al. , 2003). During these tomes, women and children are often abducted into armed factions where children are used as armed soldiers and the women are sexually exploited (usually raped) (DeStefano 2007). These conflicts increase the number of orphans and widows. One of the endemic characteristics of armed conflicts is intensified poverty for survivors, particularly orphans, widows and those families that are headed by females. This increases the vulnerability of these groups to traffickers. Migration of people as a response to insecurity and armed conflict results creation of large refugee populations which expose the most vulnerable groups (Hollenbach 2008). African countries have also remained indifferent and lack domestic commitment to protection of those vulnerable to trafficking through awareness, legislation, information and training of the responsible authorities to provide the protection (Sita 2003). Most laws on human trafficking are lenient. Penalties for those found guilty of trafficking humans are not severe. In some countries such as Kenya, the maximum sentence one gets if found guilty of child trafficking is 15 years and sometimes these offenders are set free because of corruption that manifests itself in the region. It should be noted that human trafficking is a very lucrative business with estimated annual profits of up to $ 10 billion (Adepoju 2005). Such individuals get away freely in countries with corrupt systems which most in Africa unfortunately are. Most African countries have weak state structures which are as a result of the turmoil of transitional economies (Hart, 2009). Such structures encourage an environment that favours predatory criminal groups/organisations. Such economies are usually dominated by parallel structures that thrive through intimidation and fear which replace state security (Ciment & Shanty 2008). The fact that these networks are widespread and the perception that they have the ability to get even with victims and their families strengthens their underground nature making investigation difficult because of lack of evidence. Purpose of Human Trafficking People are trafficking for various purposes. Sexual exploitation is one of the main reasons as to why women and female children are trafficked. Other purposes include underpaid and exploitative forced labour in the manufacturing, agricultural, construction and mining industries (Adepoju 2005). Exploitative domestic labour is another reason. It has also been established that children and particularly infants are trafficked for organ harvesting. Strategies used Though the profiles of victims and traffickers vary, the tactics used to deceive, recruit, transport and later exploit the trafficked persons are similar. Victims are more often than not tempted (promised) plausible promises of income, employment and educational opportunities, and sometimes shelter or care within adoptive families in the countries they are being transported to (Marta 2008). Traffickers exploit income and opportunity disparities, poverty and effects of armed conflicts within the region. Case Studies South Africa has been identified as one of the African countries where human trafficking particularly of women and children is most common (Sita 2003). The country is argued to have a large market for the services of trafficked people both from regional as well as extra-regional locations (Cross & Gelderblom 2006). Armed conflict and related dislocation, food insecurity, political and economic turmoil, poor education and lack of employment opportunities, as well as the plight of affliction of the AIDS pestilence make the country a magnet that attracts human migration from all over the continent. Organised crime groups, refugee populations and local traffickers exploit this vulnerable population for agricultural and industrial labour, organ harvesting and sex industry (UNEP 2007). South Africa acts as a transit as well as source country for international market in human trafficking. As a transit hub, South Africa happens to offer direct flights to Asia and Europe. The escalating growth of human trafficking from Africa to the Middle East and Europe implies that South Africa along with other several African countries are already feeding multinational business. It has also been established that internal trafficking also does exist within the continent and the country (Pommerin 2009). According to a study conducted by IOM report (2003), nine distinct patterns of human trafficking have been identified in South Africa. They include trafficking of; women from countries that produce refugees to South Africa (SA), children from Lesotho to Eastern Free State of SA, women and girls from Mozambique to brothels in Kwa Zulu Natal and Gauteng, women from Malawi to SA itself overland and through it to Northern Europe, children (both girls and boys) from Malawi through SA to Northern Europe, women from China, Thailand and Eastern Europe to SA. There are certain factors that contribute to human trafficking in South Africa. According to reports, about 245, 000 children are being exploited for labour including commercial sex (prostitution) making them exposed and vulnerable to exploitation and deception of human traffickers. It is approximated that South Africa has at least 30, 000 children working as prostitutes. Once involved in such an environment, children are easily emotionally intimidated and physically pushed and trapped into trafficking. South Africa also happens to be the regional powerhouse, with a GDP that is almost four times greater than most its neighbours and representing approximately 25% of the entire continent’s GDP. The country is aenjoying a relatively constant economic growth making it an attractive destination for those seeking greener pastures in the region. Traditional migration patterns of labour from the neighbouring countries, the habit of children being sent to their relatives who are better situated in the country by their relatives to be raised and unregulated cross border regulations due to casual border procedures enhance human trafficking (Richards 2004). The capacity of South Africa’s security forces is also challenged by the expensive sea state borders (Pommerin 2009). Unemployment has also increased in the country as a result of retrenchment of migrant labourers from South Africa’s farms and mines in the recent past. This has increased poverty and desperation making the populations vulnerable to traffickers’ deception. Despite the country’s overall economic growth, poverty still is high in both rural and urban areas particularly amongst women and children and is the primary cause of trafficking of these groups. Influx of refugees is one of the practical effects of armed conflict in South Africa’s neighbouring states and extra-regional states. According to studies, refugees are another group that is vulnerable to trafficking because of their desperate situations. In spite of South Africa having a progressive constitution assures gender equality and protection of human rights, gender discrimination has not stopped making women susceptible to traffickers. For South Africa, the apartheid regime legacy is playing a great part in encouraging human trafficking and has to be deconstructed for this trade to stop. Just like most countries, South Africa is yet put in place legislation and policy that will ensure a continued established of a system that will comply with international norms and standards and reinforce responses that are locally and culturally appropriate. The country is however making efforts to curb this internationally prohibited trade. South Africa continues to participate in congresses and campaigns against human and child trafficking such as the First World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in Stockholm in 1996. The country has also participated in the Terres des Hommes International Campaign against Child Trafficking which was launched in the year 2001 under Graca Machel and Desmond Tutu’s patronage. Subsequent to these events, several programmes such as social reintegration, protection, rehabilitation and awareness-building have been established. In spite of the government’s participation and efforts, human trafficking still remains a crucial problem in the country. According to Skinner (2010), prevention of this vice requires an integrated and multi-sectoral strategy that deals with migration and trafficking from an overall national as well as development policy perspective (Morehouse 2009). This author suggests exploration of an integrated approach to fighting trafficking through rights-based and gender-sensitive approaches to give livelihoods for women needs. According to him, it is poverty that drives the manifestation of human trafficking and elimination of poverty will help combat the vice. Other countries also report their share of human trafficking. In Eastern Africa, armed conflict between the government and the rebels of the LRA (Lord’s Resistance Army) has resulted to abduction of thousands of women and children by the rebels. Uganda is argued to be the supplier of trafficked children in the children. These children end up being recruited into rebel ranks in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Sudan (other areas experiencing armed conflicts). In West and Central Africa, six forms of child trafficking have been identified. They include abduction, giving poor parents money with the promise that their children will be well taken care of, bonded placement of children as repayment for debt, payment for a token sum for a certain duration, or as gift items, enrolment of the child by the parents for a fee by an agent for some work, usually domestic and deception of parents that they are enrolling their children for school, training or trade (Coluccello & Massey 2007).. Ghana, Burkinafaso, Benin, Togo and Mauritania are the main sources of child labour in the region. These are taken to Gabon, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Congo and Equatorial Guinea as domestic workers. Togolese girls are often trafficked into domestic markets while the boys are trafficked into agricultural work. In this region, poverty and ignorance played the greatest role as parents are either deceived that they are enrolling their children to school or paid some amount to hire their children out (. A considerable amount of Ghanaian women and children are often trafficked in the neighbouring countries for prostitution (Anarfi 1998). Most women in this region are trafficked to Europe where they are forced into prostitution. Italy, Spain, France, Germany, The UK, Sweden, UAE and Saudi Arabia are particularly known as destinations for trafficking women for prostitution and pornography (Anarfi 1998). Senegal is reported to be both a source as well as transit country for trafficking of women to South Africa, the Gulf States and Europe for prostitution. It is also a reported to be a destination country for children trafficked from Guinea Conakry and Mali. Women from Liberia, a war-torn country are forced to work as prostitutes in Mali while others are trafficked to Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso and France. Mali is also reported to be a transit country for trafficking women from African Anglophone countries to Europe. Most of these women end up working in brothels abroad.

Speech Essays - Cosmetics, Facial Hair, Eye, Eyelash Extensions

Speech Essays - Cosmetics, Facial Hair, Eye, Eyelash Extensions Applying makeup is an art that anyone can achieve, with this information it is practiced on a daily basis. Contouring and highlighting helps to enhance and define facial features, without the plastic surgeon and needles. Also our eyes are constantly making a statement. We can frame the windows to our soul with beautiful eyelashes. Consequently, the following will reveal how to apply makeup in the ramifications of contouring, highlighting, and applying false eyelashes. Facial contouring consists of highlighting places you want to stand out, and shading places you want to reciede. To start a general guideline would be to imagine an upside down triangle centered on the face. The side of the triangle that is parallel to the floor, would be aligned with the eyebrows following the point of the triangle to the chin. The triangle should include eyebrows, eyes, cheekbones, nose, mouth and the center of the chin. This step is important because the triangle shows the focus of the face, which should be highlighted. Choose a concealer that is 1-2 shades lighter than your skin tone. Begin to apply to the highlighted areas inside the imaginary triangle. Then, blend the highlighted areas with a synthetic brush or a damp cosmetic sponge. Both tools will help absorb any excess makeup in case application is too heavy-handed. Set the areas with a powder to ensure the longevity of the makeup. After that we can now look into shading the areas we want to slim down. Cont ouring is a technique that will help create the appearance of chiseled cheekbones, jawline and a slimmer nose. Choose a contour shade that is 3 to 4 shades darker than your skin tone. Be mindful of your type of skin tone whether it is cool, neutral, warm, red, or olive. The next step is to find where to place that contour. Keep in mind everyones face shape varies, the general guideline is an imaginary number three. Therefore hugging the perimeter of the face, the three is starting from the forehead, then curving underneath the cheekbone, and the last curve would be tracing the jawline. After those regions have been shaded in with the contour product we can now blend it with a synthetic brush or cosmetic sponge. It is important to blend within the imaginary three and not to stray away from those areas. Now that the face is defined, we can go ahead and define our eyes. Whether it is a workplace, presentation, school day, or party, defining your eyes with false lashes can accentuate the eyes wherever you go. Choose a style of lashes you wish to wear, there are millions of options from natural to drama even costume/drag queen lashes. Next, pick up the last strip with a pair of tweezers or fingers and measure to the eye shape. Start from the beginning placing the lash strip 3 millimeters away from the inner corner of the eye. Often times the lash band can poke and irritate the tear duct area if it is too close. Trim the extra length hanging from the end. Begin to apply a thin layer of eyelash glue to the lash band, make sure to wait 30 seconds for the glue to become tacky. If the glue is too wet it can cause difficulty because the false eyelashes will start to slide all over the eyelid. Tilt the head up and place the mirror to angle upwards to get a better view of the application. Lay the eyelash strip on top of your eyelashes to mimic the angle of na tural lashes. Press the middle of the lash strip with the tweezers onto lash line, then secure the front of the lash strip by the inner corner and lastly secure the end of the lash strip. To help blend the false lashes with the real lashes, pinch the lashes along the lash line together. Apply mascara to better camouflage the false lashes. If the false lash band is showing then add black eyeshadow tightly to give the illusion of a thicker lash line. Makeup is not for everyone, which is okay. My interest in makeup first came about because of my insecurities. However, makeup has taught me it isnt about fixing our

With reference to the case law on direct effect, critically discuss the extent to which this concept (direct effect) is an effective means of protecting an individual’s European Union Law rights. The WritePass Journal

With reference to the case law on direct effect, critically discuss the extent to which this concept (direct effect) is an effective means of protecting an individual’s European Union Law rights. Introduction With reference to the case law on direct effect, critically discuss the extent to which this concept (direct effect) is an effective means of protecting an individual’s European Union Law rights. ). John Fairhurst, Law of the European Union (Pearson Education, 2010). Lorna Woods and Phillipa Watson, Textbook on EU Law, (12th Edn, Oxford University Press, 2014). Nigel Foster, Foster on EU Law (OUP Oxford 2011) 219. Online Journal Articles Gwyn Tovey, European Union Law (2011) EU Law and National Law, topnotes.org/EU-3-1-Direct%20Effect-2010-2011.pdf accessed 02 December 2014. Parliament, Parliamentary Sovereignty (UK Parliament) parliament.uk/about/how/sovereignty/ accessed 01 December 2014 Case Law Defrenne v SABENA Case 2/74 [1974] ECR 631 Grad v Finanzamt Traunstein Case 9/70, [1970] ECR 825 Faccini Dori v Recreb Srl Case 91/92 [1995] All ER (EC) 1 Kà ¼cà ¼kdeveci v Swedex GmbH Co KG [2010] All ER (EC) 867) Mangold v Helm [2006] All ER (EC) 383 Marshall v Southampton and South-West Hampshire Area Health Authority (Teaching) [1986] ECR 723 Nicole Vaneetveld v Le Foyer SA Case 316/93, [1994] ECR 1-793 290 Pubblico Ministero v Ratt Case 148/78, [1979] ECR 1629 Re Honeywell [2011] 1 CMLR 1067 Van Gend en Loos v Netherlands Inland Revenue Administration [1963] ECR 1

Reflection Memo Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflection Memo - Personal Statement Example Such a degree of usefulness has left internet usage among children and young people open to various abuses and problematic scenarios. That is because the digital world that comprises the internet remains largely unsupervised by parents and teachers. Thus exposing children to certain dangers on the world wide web that could be avoided with proper guidance from parental and authority figures in the childs life. Using various methods of research and survey that include the qualitative and quantitative research methods, I came across fact based information and numerical data that supported my thesis that although the internet can act as an all around teacher and baby sitter, it also places the innocence of a child in danger because of the predators and bullies that lurk within the system. Children and young adults are not always equipped to handle such situations which can bring about emotional trauma and moral questions from the young users. Therefore the age bracket of these users require My field work and studies have shown that parents and educators are aware of the problems that exist when young people have internet access. As such, they have come up with ways and means to limit the childs exposure to the internet. Parents have done this by limiting the chillds time on the computer and restricting the browsing habits of the child through the use of specific site blocking software which is loaded into the computer. Some parents though, opt to join their children when they browse the internet instead so that they can visually see and personally restict the access of the child. Such a practice also allowed the parent to talk to the child about why certain websites are offensive. Thankfully, most educators and parents whom approached for my data gathering were quite accomodating and helpful thus making my field work and data collection easier and more accurate. In the end, I discovered that the parents and educators have only limited

Corporate Governance Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Corporate Governance - Case Study Example There was the lack of faith since the association was not sufficient enough. There was also lack of faith making the affiliation have some distance. During the old times, firing was mantle and euphemized. Long ago, Corporate embraced the straightforward system of firing to outline dismissals. Many panels took some pleasure in announcing to the world that they dismissed an individual (Feintzeig 1). While currently, staff are sent off softly with a declaration that the leader would step down to be with family for some time or follow other importance. However, at present, businesses go to the extent of declaring that the bosses have been dismissed and even go a step forward to give features. Supervising and dismissal is an element of the board of directors because, corporate supremacy is their responsibility. The board of directors presides over the corporation keeping an eye on the organization and stands for the concern of the company’s shareholders. Companies must have their director’s vote for by the investors. Therefore, they have a fiduciary obligation to their investors, who are their firm’s proprietor. The managers as well as commercial officials can be apprehended legally responsible for deteriorating to convene their fiduciary obligation to investors (Feintzeig 2). Firing for cause is based on little set of reasons in connection to the worker’s conduct such as disobedience. It means that the action by the worker has permanently injured the connection among the boss and the worker. While in termination with no reason, the worker is being dismissed for motives that do not connect to bad behavior. Those dismissed are normally given some money. Being fired for or no grounds, when the employee did not do anything, depends on the service rank and particularly on whether the worker is on at-will member of staff. The stigma of being dismissed was a major shock. It also consequences to despair, increase prime rates and scarcity in